Whatisa"LearningOrganization"?Theword"learning"wascoinedinthe1980stodescribeorganizationsthatexperimentedwithnewwaysofconductingbusinessinordertosurviveinturbulent,highlycompetitivemarkets(seeArgyrisandSchon1996;alsoSenge1990).Table1presentsthecharacteristicsthatdefinethelearningorganization,andthepositiveresultsaccruingtoindividualsandtheorganizationorcultureasawholewhentheyarepresent.Twocharacteristicsareindividual;threearegroup-based.ThecharacteristicslistedinTable1aregeneralqualitiesthatexistwithinalearningculture.However,thereareconcretecognitiveandbehavioraltools,aswellasspecifictypesofsocialinteractionandstructuralconditions,thatimprovethechancesthatthesequalitiesareachievedandsustainedovertime.Thesearethe"bestpractices"listedinTable1.Whilenotanexhaustivelist,theoneslistedinTable1fallunderfourmaincategories:communicationandopenness;inquiryandfeedback;adequatetime;andmutualrespectandsupport.Communicationandopennessinvolvebothself-reflection(i.e.,beinghonestwithoneselfaboutasituation)andparticipatoryreflection(i.e.,pushingthegrouptoclarifyandevaluatetheassumptionsunderlyinghowworkgetsdonewithintheorganization).Italsoinvolvescommunicationthatflowsasmuchfromthebottomofahierarchytothetopasvice-versa.Inquiryallowsindividualstobecomeadeptatquestioningthingsasanormalcourseoftheirwork.Itencouragespeopletotakerisksinimprovingaspectsoftheirwork.Positivefeedbackinvolvesactivitiesthataredesignedtoletpeoplelearnfromtheirinquiries,tobuildapersonalknowledgebasethatisdefinedbyproactiveratherthanreactiveordefensivethinking.Itinvolvesthosewithmoreexperiencehelpingthosewithlessexperienceunderstandnotjustthe"right"waytodothings,butwhatcanbelearnedfromdoingthingsthe"wrong"way.Communication,reflection,feedback,flexibility,andinquiryalldependuponindividualshavingadequatetimetoengagethemselvesandothersinmeaningfuldialogueandbrainstorming.Finally,mutualrespectandsupportinvolvestreatingco-workers,supervisors,andemployeesequallyandconsistentlywithrespecttoone'sabilitytocontributep