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challenge-and-response（挑战与应战）Withthecivilizationsasunitsidentified,hepresentedthehistoryofeachintermsofchallenge-and-response.Civilizationsaroseinresponsetosomesetofchallengesofextremedifficulty,when"creativeminorities"devisedsolutionsthatreorientedtheirentiresociety.Challengesandresponseswerephysical,aswhentheSumeriansexploitedtheintractableswampsofsouthernIraqbyorganizingtheNeolithicinhabitantsintoasocietycapableofcarryingoutlarge-scaleirrigationprojects;orsocial,aswhentheCatholicChurchresolvedthechaosofpost-RomanEuropebyenrollingthenewGermanickingdomsinasinglereligiouscommunity.Whenacivilizationrespondstochallenges,itgrows.Civilizationsdeclinedwhentheirleadersstoppedrespondingcreatively,andthecivilizationsthensankowingtonationalism,militarism,andthetyrannyofadespoticminority.Toynbeearguedthat"Civilizationsdiefromsuicide,notbymurder."ForToynbee,civilizationswerenotintangibleorunalterablemachinesbutanetworkofsocialrelationshipswithintheborderandthereforesubjecttobothwiseandunwisedecisionstheymade.KarlJaspersandtheAxialAge（轴心时代）AxialAgeorAxialPeriod(Achsenzeit,"axistime")isatermcoinedbyGermanphilosopherKarlJasperstodescribetheperiodfrom800to200BC,duringwhich,accordingtoJaspers,similarrevolutionarythinkingappearedinPersia,India,ChinaandtheOccident.TheperiodisalsosometimesreferredtoastheAxisAge.Jaspers,inhisTheOriginandGoalofHistory,identifiedanumberofkeyAxialAgethinkersashavinghadaprofoundinfluenceonfuturephilosophiesandreligions,andidentifiedcharacteristicscommontoeachareafromwhichthosethinkersemerged.Jasperssawinthesedevelopmentsinreligionandphilosophyastrikingparallelwithoutanyobviousdirecttransmissionofideasfromoneregiontotheother,havingfoundnorecordedproofofanyextensiveintercommunicationbetweenAncientGreece,theMiddleEast,India,andChina.Jaspersheldupthisageasunique,andonetowhichtherestofthehistoryofhumanthoughtmightbecompared.Jaspers'approachtothecultureofthemiddleofthefirstmillenniumBChasbeenadoptedbyotherscholarsandacademics,andhasbecomeapointofdiscu
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